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前言：Word Choice
一. 科研论文用词与口语的不同：
1、使用 单个动词替换 动词短语 是从普通写作到科研论文写作的最大转变！
eg.
Researchers looked at the way strain builds up around a fault.
In writing, choose a single verb:
Researchers observed the way strain accumulates around a fault. √
2、使用 正式的名词和形容词（避免口语化）
eg.
The government has made good / considerable progress in solving environmental problems.
We got / obtained encouraging results.
The results of a lot of / numerous different projects have been pretty good / encouraging .
3、避免缩写
eg.
We’ve investigated how many words dogs understand.
In writing, avoid contractions:
We have investigated how many words dogs understand.
4、使用正式否定
eg.
Our results didn’t produce any new insights.
Put statements in positive form:
Our results produced no new insights.
除此之外：
单词选择要:
1. Your words should be as precise as your science.
2. If an idea is simple, do not make it complex. If an idea is complex, write it as simply as possible.
3. There is no short cut. Line by line and word by word, check through the text and ask: Is this word necessary?
文章结构：
第一部分：Introduction
写作步骤：
1. Aim（question、experimental approach、prediction）
2. Unknown
3. Opening（significance、keyword/background-issue、current focus）
NO.1 Introduction的结构
Know
Unknow : problems, gaps in knowledge, possibilities
Question : aim, question, or hypothesis
Approach
NO.2 The Aim of Introduction
In this study, we ask whether the ecological quality of the Wolong Nature Reserve improve after it was established. To answer this question, we use remote sensing data from 1975-2018 to measure total habitat area, mean patch size, patch number. We predicted that the ecological quality of the Wolong Nature Reserve will significantly improve with total habitat area, mean patch size, and patch number increase variously.
---LY
包括3个部分：
1. the question
- 必须明确；
- 包含自变量以及因变量；
- 标志词：
In this study we asked whether …
Here we investigate how …
The purpose of this study is to determine whether …
In this report we tested the hypothesis …
2. e xperimental approach
- The experimental approach is (1) short , (2) stated after the research question, and (3) describes the information you will generate.
- 当问题与研究方法在两个不同的段落时，需要重复“ 问题 ”的关键词来达到连接的二者的目的。
eg.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether … For this purpose, we …
In this study, we ask whether … To answer this question, we …
- 当研究问题和实验方法在同一句话中，只需要问题的标志词。
eg.
To determine whether …, we
To investigate which …, we
3. prediction
NO.3 The Unknown of Introduction
陈述Unknown的常用方法：
1、消极的标志词
- 但是也得避免太过于消极
d isregarded、 i gnored、 m isinterpreted
incomplete、 misguided、 questionable、 unsatisfactory
- 注意可数与不可数
- 不可数 可数
eg. However, little attention has been paid to the effect of asthma on long-term lung function.
此外，用现在完成时比较好，表明过去完成的事情对现在的影响。
2、对比的陈述
- Although + KNOWN,
UNKNOWN (limitation / gap in knowledge )
eg.Although genetic factors contribute to almost half of the cases of deafness, treatment options for genetic deafness are limited.
Although some researchers propose that upper-face movements in the “fear” grasping face were adaptations to enhance vision, these findings have been limited to Western societies.
- Although + limitation/ unknown,
possibility
eg.Although there is no ‘magic bullet’ that can completely conquer cancer, many types of disease might be avoidable.
- Despite的使用：
注意：despite后，使用名词、代词、ing形式
而不能链接句子；但是可以以从句形式出现，示例如下：
NO.4 The Opening of Introduction
三部分： 1、establis significance ；2、background/keywords ；3、identify problem aera/current research focus
[x]总原则：由 aim推出研究opening
eg：
Establis significance：
经济上影响：
e conomically important
e conomic costs
s ubstantial costs
重要的意义：
fundamental
c rucial issue
central
k ey role
有用的技术：
k ey technique
u seful method
a powerful tool
大量的研究：
w idely recognized
traditionally
e xtensively studied
o ver the past ten years
eg： Protected areas play a key role in conserving biodiversity.
Background / keywords
1.依据Aim中研究问题，去寻找关键词！（同时说明研究问题段落需要阐述出全部的关键词）
In this study we used …. to better understand the effects of propagule pressure and disturbance on invasion .
we ask whether the ecological quality of the Wolong Nature Reserve improve after it was established.（可能是部分关键词）
2.介绍关键词
3.表明问题
eg：
However , understanding how these processes interact to regulate invasions remains a major challenge in ecology.
… but the drivers of variation in leaf-associated bacterial biodiversity among host plants are not well understood .
NO.5 The previous research（funnel） of Introduction
1、 引用前人文献的三个方式:
(1) Information prominent （关注信息） eg. The causes of illiteracy are complex (Jones, 2017; Ferrara, 2015; Hyon, 2004).
时态选择： present/past verb form——现在时/过去时都可
(2) Author prominent （关注作者） eg. Veltman et al. (1996) found that the probability of invasion success greatly increased with the number of introduction attempts
时态选择： researcher activity 作者行为——过去时
refer to what the previous researcher wrote or thought 陈述事实——现在时/过去时/现在完成时皆可！eg. 
[x]一般作者比较出名
(3) Weak author prominent （虚化作者、多作者） eg. Several researchers have studied the causes of illiteracy (Jones, 2017; Ferrara, 2015; Hyon, 2004).
时态选择： present perfect verb form ——现在完成时 has/have (been) down
2、 改写：Paraphrasing 使用自己的话表达对相关文献的理解
(b)、动词的同义词替换！eg.
(c)、M aking it your own！ eg.
Overall, Paraphrase these sentences so that (1) the word order is different, (2) at least one element changes , for example, verb to noun, or noun to verb, or adjective to adverb, and (3) synonyms are used.
Use the Key Words to Plan your Funnel！
Make sure that you write (1) a topic sentence, and that you (2) support that topic sentence.
I suggest that you end each Funnel paragraph with a gap in our knowledge related to the topic of the paragraph.
第二部分：Result
一、几个问题：
Q1_What is the function of the Results section?
1.陈述结果；
2.使用图表指导读者相关内容。
Q2_What is included in the Results Section?
Data、Results that don’t fit hypothesis、background、
purpose、Control results、Statistical analysis、Experimental results
但不包括：应用、与大问题不相关的结果...
Q3_What is the difference between data, results, and implications?
Data: 实验或观察到的事实；
Results：对数据进行的通用解释陈述；
Implication：针对结果，你的思考，假设，以及可能引申出来的更大的问题。
例：
Data：
1 In the 20 control subjects, the mean resting blood pressure was 85 ± 5 (SD) mmHg. 2 In comparison, in the 30 tennis players, the mean resting blood pressure was 94 ± 3 mmHg.
Result：
1 The mean resting blood pressure was 10% higher in the 30 tennis players than in the 20 control subjects (94 ± 3 mmHg vs. 85 ± 5 mmHg, P < 0.02).
二、几个要点：
1、陈述结果需要相对应的数据支持 State the Results, Support with Data.
eg. The mean resting blood pressure was 10% higher in the 30 tennis players than in the 20 control subjects (94 ± 3 mmHg vs. 85 ± 5 mmHg, P < 0.02).
2、两种类型的结果.
A.所有试验设计前文已陈述：
State Key Result
Locate the figure or table
Support with Evidence
eg.
B.一个实验决定下一个试验（一般见于Nature、Science） One experiment determines the next ：
Question
Overview of experiments Results
Results
Answer to the question
3、结果的动词形式 Verb Form
A. 假设检验研究的结果是用过去时态
eg.
Pulmonary artery constriction was reduced.
Imidazole inhibited the increase in pulmonary arterial pressure induced by lipid infusion.
B. 描述性结果用现在时陈述，因为描述仍然为真。
陈述图表
C. 评论或解释问题用情态动词
4、首先是结果，后面紧跟详细的支持细节. Results first , Supporting Details Second
即，每个结果独立成段，把结果放在段落的开头（主题句）
5、 避免数据掩盖了结果的光芒。
大多数数据应以图或表形式展现。如果大量的数据以文本的形式呈现，它们可能会淹没结果
文本中可以使用一两个特别重要的值来强调，此外，最好 将数据放在括号中以强调结果。
eg.1
eg.2
6、语言要定量化，避免定性的结果
e.g., instead of saying ”diversity is slightly higher,” say “26% higher.”
7、 不要使用图形或表标题作为主题句
在给出结果的语句之后引用图和表(括号内)，最好在与图或表相关的第一个结果之后引用
8、Method Subordinated in Transition Clause
In the Results section, the main verbs should describe results, not methods. Avoid sentences that state methods only.
9、Parallel Ideas in Parallel Form
逻辑与重要性上地位相等的结果其形式应该一致
9、结果对比时, 使用 “than,” 不要使用 “compared with / to.”
What is wrong with this Results section?
- 背景信息不需要
- 方法不需要
- 图.X最好放在句子后面
- 注意时态
第三部分：DISCUSSION
一、结构
What is the purpose of the Discussion?
1.回答研究问题；
2.解释结果是怎么样支持我们的答案的；
3.我们的回答是否与现有知识相匹配。
通常讨论部分包含大量的信息，如：Answer the Research Question、Explain Discrepancies with Other Results、Previous Research、Applications... 我们应该如何组织这些信息呢？
一般来说，讨论从具体开始，然后扩展到大问题，讨论的重点是
1.对引言introduction中问题的回答，2.中间是support部分，3.最后外推到大的问题。
1.对引言introduction中问题(aim)的回答answer：
eg. 
- 但此处的answer与结果处的answer有所差异，讨论部分的answer属于基于result概述性质的回答。
比如：A引起了B的升高，在result部分可能说增高了百分之多少等详细的定量过程，
但是在discussion部分直接说主要结果-增高了-即可。
- Two main points about the answer.
2.通过陈述result来support答案：
- Support Answer with Results；
答案通常是基于结果的概括。因此，为了让读者相信答案是有效的，在陈述答案answer之后陈述 相关的结果(support部分) 。
- Explain Answer (Relate to previous research)；
- Explain Limitations；
没有研究是完美的。尽可能早地在讨论的主体部分讨论工作的限制和约束；
研究限制要简要、诚实。
3.外推到大的问题：Resolution
- 重申结果及其意义
- 再次回答目标aim中提出的问题
- 阐明我们的研究如何贡献推动大问题的解决
一个好的解决方案resolution向我们展示了我们对自然的理解是如何进步的，并为开篇所指出的大问题提供了新的见解！
二、Beginning the Discussion
第一部分（answer）
两种开头方式：
- 重新回答问题（aim）针对re-question，去回答问题：
- 需要使用相同的关键词，动词形式、观点（the same key terms, the same verb (when possible), and the same point of view.）
- 回答的标志词：
This study shows that
Our results indicate that
In this study, we provide evidence that
In this study, we have shown that
In this study, we have found that
In this study, we found that
其中动词时态：如果主语是“study”or“results”等——现在时；如果主语是“we”，——现在、现在完成、过去时都可，取决于动词。
2.另一种方法是，简短的引用别人的研究（introduction里面存在的）来开头， 必须准确地重述引言中的观点，并且必须简短(一两句话)。
第二部分（support）
第一部分里的answer是基于result内容做出的概述性回答，因此为了给读者表明结果的准确性，需要在第二部分陈述相关的结果。
1.与result的不同：
- result的语言是定量化的，而此处结果是定性的！
Result：(p < .001 for all comparisons; Figures 2b, 3b).
VS support：
2.与第一部分过渡：
- 过渡词、句
In our experiments
Evidence that (answer) is that
We found that*
(Answer) has been demonstrated in two ways. First,
如果存在多个关键问题，那么就在discussion里重复上述内容。
3. Explaining Your Answer
(1) support the Answer with your Results,
(2) Interpret those results,
(3) Relate your work to previous research, and (4) Explain when necessary.
针对（3）（4）具体如下：
- 你的研究结果与当前现有研究有何关联?
1.extend results
（ in agreement with、 similar to、 consistent with（与...一致）、 comparable to（可比较的、相差无几的）、 analogous to（类同于）、 confirms（证实）、 corroborates（证实，使坚固）、 supports ）
eg. Our current findings expand prior work (Stetson and Vernon, 2011).
2.contradict
（ different from、 challenges ）
eg. This result contrasts with earlier findings that chimpanzees are only able to cooperate in experimental environments orchestrated to minimize competition and maximize tolerance (Chalmeau, 1994; Melis et al., 2006)
3.Confirm results
（ extends、 broadens ）
eg. Our finding that S. muticum recruitment was positively related to propagule input is similar to those of two previous studies (Parker, 2001; Thomsen et al., 2006), in which the propagule input of invasive plants was manipulated.
We found that S. laniceps size was smaller in heavily harvested areas, but not in protected areas. This suggests that human harvesting can affect plant size in S. laniceps. This finding contrasts with earlier findings that human harvesting does not affect plant size in wild fish mint (Snow et al., 2012). However, our results are similar to a previous study that showed human harvesting appears to select for flower color in four plant species(Porter et al., 2017).
- 主要框架:
1 (Previous research)brief
2 (Your Result)
3 (What is known that will help explain difference)
4 Therefore, (what is the best explanation for the difference)
4、limitation
[]文章的缺陷主要包括： 
[]处理方式
admit 、Explain、Minimize unexpected results?
接受它、解释它、最小化（忽略它） 
[]应该放在何处？
If explanation is brief (one to two sentences), explain in Methods.
If explanation requires one or two paragraphs, or if limitations strongly affect results, explain in the Discussion.
[]怎么样一个套路？
“yes, but…” strategy （不好！）
Better strategy: “but, yes…”
example： 
第三部分.外推到大的问题（Resolution）
一个好的 resolution 向我们展示了我们对自然界的认识是如何进步的，并为开篇所指出的big issue提供了新的见解。
- 重申结果及其意义
- 再次回答目标aim中提出的问题
- 阐明我们的研究如何贡献推动大问题的解决
eg .
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